Chapter 4 TRIBALS, DIKUS AND THE VISION OF A GOLDEN AGE

How Did Tribal Groups Live?

Tribal groups in India, prior to the 19th century, lived diverse lifestyles, often distinct from Brahmanical norms and caste-based societies. Many were jhum cultivators (shifting cultivators), practicing farming on small forest patches by clearing and burning vegetation. They used simple tools like axes and hoes, broadcasting seeds rather than ploughing. After harvesting, they moved to new fields, leaving old ones fallow. Others were hunters and gatherers, relying heavily on forests for survival, food, medicine, and materials for crafts. Pastoral groups, like the Van Gujjars and Gaddis, moved seasonally with their livestock. Many tribal communities became dependent on traders and moneylenders for essential goods and loans, often leading to debt and poverty.

Some Were Jhum Cultivators

Jhum cultivation, or shifting cultivation, was practiced in forested hilly regions. It involved clearing small land patches by cutting and burning trees, using the ash as fertilizer. Seeds were broadcast, and after harvest, the land was left fallow. This practice required freedom of movement within forests.

Some Were Hunters And Gatherers

Communities like the Khonds depended on hunting, gathering forest produce (fruits, roots, medicinal herbs), and selling these in markets. They also exchanged goods with local weavers and leather workers and occasionally worked as laborers in villages. Some, like the Baigas, were reluctant to work for others, seeing themselves as people of the forest.

Some Herded Animals

Pastoral groups, such as the Van Gujjars, Gaddis, and Bakarwals, moved seasonally with their cattle, sheep, or goats, relying on their animals for milk, meat, wool, and hides.

Some Took To Settled Cultivation

Even before the 19th century, some tribal groups began practicing settled agriculture, cultivating the same land year after year and using the plough. Land was often owned communally, with powerful individuals within clans becoming chiefs who rented out land.

How Did Colonial Rule Affect Tribal Lives?

British colonial rule significantly impacted tribal lives by altering their traditional systems and introducing new laws and economic pressures.

What Happened To Tribal Chiefs?

Tribal chiefs, who previously held significant economic and administrative power, saw their authority curtailed. While allowed to retain land titles, they lost administrative control, had to pay tribute to the British, and were tasked with disciplining their own people on behalf of the colonial government, diminishing their traditional status.

What Happened To The Shifting Cultivators?

The British found shifting cultivators' mobility inconvenient and difficult to administer. They attempted to settle the jhum cultivators, believing settled peasants were easier to control and provided a regular revenue source. However, settled plough cultivation was often unsuitable for the terrain and soil conditions, leading to poor yields and widespread protests. Eventually, the British allowed some groups to continue shifting cultivation under certain restrictions.

Forest Laws And Their Impact

Colonial forest laws declared forests as state property, restricting tribal access to forest resources. Reserved forests, established for timber, prohibited jhum cultivation, collection of forest produce, and hunting. This forced many tribal people to migrate in search of alternative livelihoods. The British also faced a labor shortage for forest-related work, leading them to establish forest villages where tribal communities provided labor in exchange for limited land access.

The Problem With Trade

From the 19th century, traders and moneylenders increasingly entered forest areas, offering cash loans and seeking forest produce. This led to tribal dependence, debt, and poverty, as they were often paid low prices for their goods and charged high interest rates, leading many to view traders and moneylenders as exploitative outsiders.

The Search For Work

As forest resources dwindled and traditional livelihoods became difficult, many tribals were forced to seek work as laborers, often far from home. The expansion of tea plantations in Assam and mining in Jharkhand recruited tribal people in large numbers, typically through contractors who paid low wages and prevented them from returning home.

The “Blue Rebellion” And After

The oppressive indigo cultivation system led to widespread tribal revolts. In 1859, ryots in Bengal rebelled against planters, refusing rents and attacking factories. This movement was supported by some zamindars and village headmen. The British government, concerned about further unrest after the 1857 revolt, established the Indigo Commission, which acknowledged the planters' coercive methods and allowed ryots to refuse future indigo contracts.

Birsa Munda

Birsa Munda, born in the mid-1870s, emerged as a leader of a tribal movement in Chottanagpur. Influenced by various religious and social ideas, he urged Mundas to reform their society, give up liquor, clean villages, and reject witchcraft. He advocated for a return to a "golden age" of Munda self-rule and challenged the oppression of outsiders (dikus) like missionaries, landlords, and the government. The movement aimed to drive out these forces and establish Munda Raj. Birsa was arrested and jailed, but upon release, he continued to mobilize people, leading to attacks on symbols of diku and European power. Though the movement eventually faded after Birsa's death in 1900, it led to the introduction of laws protecting tribal land rights and demonstrated the tribal people's capacity for protest against injustice.

Exercises

The chapter exercises prompt students to understand the lives of tribal groups, the impact of colonial rule, and the nature of tribal rebellions. Questions require filling in blanks about tribal practices and their classification, stating true or false statements about tribal lives and British policies, and discussing the problems faced by jhum cultivators, changes in tribal chiefs' powers, the reasons for tribal anger towards 'dikus', and Birsa's vision. Activities include finding out about other tribal revolts, researching contemporary tribal groups' lives, and role-playing a conversation between a jhum cultivator and British officials to express the challenges faced.